Chapter 7. 7.1 What Is Deviance. Deviance †Behavior That

Chapter 7 7.1 What is Deviance? Deviance – behavior that departs from societal or group norms Crime – an action or omission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted by the state and is punishable by law Social Control – consists of the forces and processes that encourage conformity, including: self control, informal and formal control Criminal Justice System – the organizations - police, courts, and prison officials - that respond to alleged violations of the law The Biological Context †¢ Genetic research seeks possible links between biology and crime. †¢ No physical traits distinguish criminals from noncriminals. †¢ Current research puts greater emphasis on social influences. Personality Factors †¢ Some personality traits are†¦show more content†¦Strain Theory – Modes of Adaptation – how individuals adapt to the strain of not having access to scarce resources such as money, education, talent, ability, etc. Merton says we don’t all have the same opportunities in life The table on page 203 combines a person’s view of cultural goals and the conventional means to obtain them. It allowed Robert Merton to identify various types of deviance. Conformity – accept the means and the goal Innovation – Accepts culturally approved goals and achieves them through a disapproved way Ritualism – Abandon s society’s goals but lives by society’s ways Retreatism – Abandon s approved goals and the means to achieve them Rebellion – deviant adaptive behavior that is a result of rejecting the goal and the means but substituting new goals and means Deviant Subcultures- Deviance or conformity arises from the relative opportunity structure that frames a person’s life. 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The Bay Of Pigs And The Cuban Missile Crisis - 1516 Words

The Bay of Pigs invasion has come to be known as the perfect failure in American history. The invasion only lasted two days but the effects of the invasion lasted for decades. One of the most significant consequences of the Bay of Pigs was the thirteen day standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States over the installation of nuclear armed Soviet missiles on Cuba a year after the Bay of Pigs. The standoff, known as the Cuban Missile Crisis, is the closest the world has come to nuclear war. The causes and the responsibility for the Cuban Missile Crisis are many. Was the Bay of Pigs just another event in a timeline that was destined for the Cuban Missile Crisis or did the Bay of Pigs cause the Cuban Missile Crisis? A historical analysis of the events leading up to the Bay of Pigs as well as the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs will substantiate the fact that the Bay of Pigs was a substantial critical event causing the Cuban Missile Crisis. The planning for the Bay of Pigs began under President Eisenhower’s administration. President Eisenhower approved the CIA’s Bay of Pigs plan to oust Fidel Castro and overthrow Cuba’s communist government on March 17, 1960. The planning and preparation continued throughout the rest of the year. On January 20, 1961, John F Kennedy became the President of the United States. He had learned of the Bay of Pigs plan months earlier, and now as President, after consulting with his advisors, also approved the CIA planned Bay of PigsShow MoreRelatedThe Cuban Missile Crisis : The Bay Of Pigs Invasion1272 Words   |  6 PagesProceeding to the Cuban Missile Crisis, American relationships with Castro were previously tense by the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) where the United States made an unorthodox action towards Cuba by financing and sending insurgent Cubans to help aid in overthrowing and attacking Castro’s supporters and Castro himself0000000. The Bay of Pigs wa s unsuccessful. 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Code of Ethics in Counselling

Question - Describe, identify and apply ethical practice skills and comply with legal responsibilities. Identify safety issues for client and others such as self harm suicide ? Answer - Introduction PACFA is an organization standing for Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation in Australia to foster development of professional practice by the means of training, supervision, research and some other clinical practices (Brett, 2011). The code of ethics giving fundamental values to be used in embracing key principles and setting up framework for ethics. However, there can be issues challenging the legal and ethical standpoints (Council). The professional values are becoming more and more significant in a way to express the ethical commitment towards values and beliefs. The analysis will lay stress upon some of the chosen principles for code of conduct in ethical and legal background by specially focusing over practical adoption of these principles in the real life companies or business organizations. The analysis also lays stress upon the upcoming challenges or barriers in the path of application or execution of those values in the ethical code of conduct. Values of counselling and psychotherapy There are primarily nine principles of ethical code of conduct as defined by PACFA (Brett) with each one of them holding special relevance in the practical scenario of business applications and ethical practices. It includes a commitment towards respecting human rights and dignity. It includes commitment to increase personal effectiveness. It includes appreciating the variety of human experience and culture. It includes enhancing the quality of relationships between people. Respecting Human Rights and Dignity This value and ethical standard complies with the fact that every counselling sessions must respect human rights and dignity of all the participants and the stakeholders connected with the session. Every participant and personnel of management must respect the rights of every other co member by upholding their work dignity (Crowden, 2008). The counsellors of professional ethics and rules teach to respect the essentiality of worth, humanity and dignity to promote value of work (Schofield, 2008) for all the potential participants in the work field. The professionals and counsellors for developing a professional identity recognize the need to protect the rights of the participants including the right to have an informed consent (Mahoney, 2006). All the practitioners and the counsellors have to abide by the laws pertaining to human rights and the society in which they practice and live. Counsellors of psychotherapy consider the social context of the participants and the stakeholders alon g with the connections they have with the laws and rules. Supervisors and counsellors are also responsible for protecting the rights of confidentiality of the clients (Anderson, 1999) in the context of information sharing. For a practical example that can be taught in the counselling process it can be seen that an organization having 70% of men and 30% of female population, it is utterly important to save the human rights in the context of safety, rules, respect, dignity, appropriateness of behavior and other factors. Tata Consultancy Services have a formularized a code of conduct in which they have explicitly mentioned that every employee shall be treated with dignity and to maintain an environment which is free of sexual harassment (physical, verbal, psychological) to help in providing merit based decisions. For a practical application of human rights and respect for dignity in the counselling process, there can be special sessions for exchanging information and communication to be able to observe the inherent respect for rights of every individual and thereby come on an analysis for every participant in the process of counselling There are some of the principles covered in protection and respect of human rights and dignity like right to life to protect the life of the participants. However, there must be counselling provided for suicidal attempts caused which may prove to a barrier to respecting this human rights. There must be respect of human rights to prohibit torture and inhuman treatment (Donnelly, 2013) and to protect the people from slavery of acts of forced labor. Counsellors must teach the participants, the right to liberty and freedom including some personal rights that the place of their practice must respect and uphold. The workplaces do protect the freedom of thought, belief and religion (Rorty, 1993) within the work environment so as to make the participants express the views freely. Human rights pertaining to discrimination are protected and respected. Social barriers are prominent in this scenario where the social stature, income group, cultural background and other factors varies resulting in to situations of discrimination and violation of human rights to each and every one. Therefore, the code of ethics state that for every institution or organization in every field of work, the human rights of people must be protected and their work dignity including the sense of diversity must be upheld within the workplace. Commitment to increase personal effectiveness Personal effectiveness is realized by the amount of work or the effort that an individual person puts into the task required. Personal effectiveness should increase with time so as to give better output to the workplace as well as it is essential for personal development. Counsellors must take necessary steps and arrange sessions so as to develop and maintain a competent environment within the organization so as to make the professionals perform well in their work culture and prove to be mutually advantageous (Council, 1985) for all. Improvement in the work and the organizational environment is the key catalyst for growth and this improvement is the sole result of the personal efficiency. It is defined in code of ethics of any workplace that participants must comply with rule to refine their professional skills by learning new skills and polishing the acquired skills (Australia, 1982) with due experience and professional domain knowledge. Some places for work also give some recommend ations and solutions to increase the personal effectiveness. Some of the key recommendations are to develop a better sense of self concept required for achieving self effectiveness and self excellence (Anderson, 1993). Workplaces lay stress over realizing crisp and clear goals for oneself so as to direct the resources and capabilities in a single direction. Organization of work (Argyris, 1974) and ethical practices is itself a focused and important task which leads to enhancement in the principles of personal effectiveness. It is also required to develop people and HR skills (Tziner, 1991) so as to learn and develop personal effectiveness and management along with developing team leadership and association skills. Various organizations are laying stress over self development techniques, principles and strategies to refine personal skills and effectiveness. Companies specifically mention this in their code of ethics to motivate the participants and to keep them self sufficient (DiMat tia, 1990) to learn and progress in the work environment. In the process of counselling there must be customized sessions for group f participants sharing common level of intellect and self learning capabilities. There must be sessions given over personal enhancement and its use in the future of any work. Counsellors must maintain an open communication to foster the development of personal effectiveness and must have a learning environment to promote self learning techniques. However, there are some of the barriers in developing this code of ethics in counselling process such as personal prejudices on development and the sources of personal effectiveness development. There may be participants who are resistant to learn new things and develop personal skills out of jealousy, competition and objective behavior. People who are susceptible to age are unable to learn in a better way and lack ethical responsibilities of self learning. Appreciating variety of human experience and culture This value under the code of ethics includes appreciating and rewarding the experience and performance of the participants in the counselling sessions to boost their personal confidence. It is essential for every counsellor to pay due respect to the past experiences and culture of every participant and to modulate and structure the sessions and strategies that are special for each of the participant. It is important to understand the uniqueness (Kleinman, 1999) that every person holds in and then formulate the strategies accordingly. Multicultural studies (Rogof, 2003) play a vital role for the counselling sessions to dwell deeper into the cultural background of the participants and seek out for solutions for upcoming ethical or legal issues pertaining to personal experience. Various counsellors seek out procedures and policies so as to appreciate the individuality and uniqueness of each and every participant. There is a respect for diversity. The opposition behavior pertaining to di verse cultured participants is checked and noticed and there is a respect for diversity within the institution. There must be reorganization of diversity within the institution so as to customize the groups within it. Top management must keep a constant check over the functioning of the sessions to monitor the behavior of participants towards diversity and cultural differences. There must be appraisals, rewards or appreciations given in some or the other form to the participants who are genuinely respecting the diversity in culture and giving due regard to the past experiences of the participants (Brown, 2006). Appreciating individual experience and background culture of the participants, will motivate every individual to create an overall safe, humble and respectable environment for everybody. There must be groups made on a dynamic basis in the counselling sessions having people from diverse backgrounds and having different work experiences in terms of age, intellect and skills. This will encourage a sense of mutual respect of culture and experience. Barriers in implementation of this code of ethics is disrespect for diversity at various work places. There have been consistent news about harassment, exploitation and mishandling with participants coming from diverse backgrounds. They are ethically and morally harassed because of their background or culture as other participants make them feel different and unwanted in the official environment. Instead of appreciating their work culture, sometimes participants with different background are judged or marked on the basis of their culture which marks the presence of discrimination in diversity. Social barriers must be overcome in the process and hence, there must be special provisions in the counselling sessions to eradicate the sense of discrimination and respect every culture. Enhancing quality of relationships between people To enhance the quality of relationship between the people, incorporates establishing and maintaining the relationship between all the stakeholders both internal and external to the counselling institution so as to uphold the integrity of the staff members (Wilson, 2000) and their cooperative support extended in business projects. Counsellors must pay special attention to build positive and beneficial relationships between the participants and the outer world giving services for a successful business venture. Mentors must also pay focus over building positive relations within the whole supply chain (Ledingham, 2000) to be able to integrate all the efforts and to produce the required end product or service. Various companies specially specify the code of conduct to be followed by the participants when they would deal with the end customers or the officials of top management. Coaches must make the participants study these code of conduct and take practical case studies for research purp oses. In the process of counselling, it is a highlighted topic of concern to teach the participants to show due regard to every other employee and establish long term and mutually beneficial relationships (Gremler, 2001) with all the stakeholders. The key role of counsellors comes into picture when they have to guide the participants to maintain a good relationship with the top management as well as junior participants or peer workers to make the system of work environment and culture healthy, positive and vibrant. The challenges in adoption of this value under ethical code of conduct is the strains and hardships that may occur due to activities of misbehavior, misunderstanding, unethical procedures in work and such other factors. On a whole, there might be classifications done on the basis of socio cultural position of an employee which might lead to strained relationships causing harm to the productivity of work. Conclusion It can be summarized that code of ethics in a counselling process should be based over ethics and mentors must be proficient with the structure of the management, culture of the participants and the values and principles abided by within the institution. This will help in making the process of counselling enriched and refined. The principles followed by the code of ethics statements in the counselling institution more or less revolves around human rights, respect for diversity, quality of professionalism, integrity of the participants, self growth opportunities and appreciation for quality work. References Brett, M. (2011). PACFA response to consultation: Draft Public Health (Code of Conduct for Certain Health Practitioners) Regulation 2011. Council, A. H. M. A. PACFA response to consultation: Options for regulation of unregistered health practitioners. Brett, M., CEO, P. eNewsletter. Crowden, A. (2008). Professional boundaries and the ethics of dual and multiple overlapping relationships in psychotherapy.Monash bioethics review,27(4), 10-27. Schofield, M. (2008). Best Practice Self-Regulation Model for Psychotherapy and Counselling in Australia. Mahoney, J. (2006). Respecting Human Rights.Law Just.-Christian L. Rev.,156, 53. Anderson, J. C. (1999). Respecting human rights: Multinational corporations strike out. Pa. J. Lab. Emp. L.,2, 463. Donnelly, J. (2013).Universal human rights in theory and practice. Cornell University Press. Rorty, R. (1993). Human rights, rationality, and sentimentality. Council, M. A. (1995).Code of ethics. Manitoba Arts Council. Australia, S. (1982).Code of ethics. Education Department of South Australia. Anderson, R. E., Johnson, D. G., Gotterbarn, D., Perrolle, J. (1993). Using the new ACM code of ethics in decision making.Communications of the ACM,36(2), 98-107. Argyris, C., Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing personal effectiveness.SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Argyris, C. and Schn, D.(1976), Theoryin Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness, SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey Education,15(1), 18-33. Tziner, A., Haccoun, R. R., Kadish, A. (1991). Personal and situational characteristics influencing the effectiveness of transfer of training improvement strategies.Journal of Occupational Psychology,64(2), 167-177. DiMattia, D. J., Mennen, S. (1990).Rational Effectiveness Training: Increasing Personal Productivity at Work. Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy. Kleinman, A. (1999). Experience and its moral modes: Culture, human conditions, and disorder.Tanner lectures on human values,20, 355-420. Rogof, B. (2003).THE Cultural NATURE~ OF Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press. Brown, E. L. (2006). Knowing, Valuing, and Shaping One's Culture: A Precursor to Acknowledging, Accepting, and Respecting the Culture of Others. Multicultural education,14(1), 15-19. Wilson, L. J. (2000). Building employee and community relationships through volunteerism: A case study.Public relations as relationship management: A relational approach to the study and practice of public relations, 137-44. Ledingham, J. A., Bruning, S. D., Ki, E. J., Kim, J. N. (Eds.). (2000).Public relations as relationship management: A relational approach to the study and practice of public relations. Routledge. Gremler, D. D., Gwinner, K. P., Brown, S. W. (2001). Generating positive word-of-mouth communication through customer-employee relationships. International Journal of Service Industry Management,12(1), 44-59.

Decribe the key issue Abu Ghraib free essay sample

Outline a key issue for obedience, discuss by using theories/studies from obedience for what happened in Abu Ghraib The Abu Ghraib prison is a notorious prison in Iraq, located in Abu Ghraib, near Baghdad. US soldiers were told to abuse and humiliate the prisoners by their leaders; this included chaining them up, treating them like dogs, and sometimes sexually harassing them. In April 2004 the abuses at Abu Ghraib were exposed with photos and videos showing US soldiers abusing naked Iraqis. On the 22nd October 2004, a US solider – Staff sergeant Ivan Chip Frederick, aged 38 was sentenced to 8 years imprisonment for sexually and physically assaulting detainees which included performing a mock electrocution on an individual. Chief Warrant Officer Kevin Kramer, a military intelligence officer referred to an email sent by US command in Baghdad telling him to order his interrogators to be tough on prisoners. The email said that they â€Å"wanted the detainees to be broken†. This theory could be used because the soldiers are trained to be agents of authority and believe they have a duty to protect America as agents of society thus as soldiers, they would be agents obeying the orders rather than autonomous individuals making their own decisions. The soldiers would not have been in an autonomous state, and would have therefore been more able to carry out the orders given to them by an authority figure. This may have been because the soldiers were under the impressions that they would not be held responsible for their actions hence they thought it was acceptable to torture the Iraqi detainees as well as degrading them in the process. The agency theory can be used for what happened at Abu Ghraib. The US soldiers were in an agentic state; they were an agent for the authority, in the soldier’s case the authority was the higher up in command officers. When they were given a job to do for example, to sexually harass a prisoner they did it because they saw it as their duty not their own choice. The soldiers took no responsibility for their actions because they were told to do them. When the abuse at Abu Ghraib was exposed to the public, all the soldiers said were that â€Å"they were only following orders†. In the soldier’s eyes and mind they were only doing their duty they were not committing any wrong. The authority had complete control over them and could tell them to do anything and they would do it. But once this abuse was exposed the soldiers agentic state broke down and they started to realise they had done wrong and got into an autonomous state and then took  responsibility for their actions, as they realised they didn’t have to follow them but at the time they believed they had to because they were not in charge. Joe Darby was the one who took the photos and reported them; he was a ‘whistleblower’. A whistleblower is someone who reports something to someone which is engaged in illicit activity. Zimbardo’s prison experiment can also be used as a study to explain what happened in Abu Ghraib. In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram, was interested in expanding upon Milgrams research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behaviour. The researchers set up a mock prison in the basement of Standford Universitys psychology building, and then selected 24 undergraduate students to play the roles of both prisoners and guards. The participants were selected from a larger group of 70 volunteers because they had no criminal background, lacked psychological issues and had no major medical conditions. While the Stanford Prison Experiment was originally slated to last 14 days, it had to be stopped after just six days due to what was happening to the student participants. The guards became abusive and the prisoners began to show signs of extreme stress and anxiety. While the prisoners and guards were allowed to interact in any way they wanted, the interactions were generally hostile or even dehumanizing. The guards began to behave in ways that were aggressive and abusive toward the prisoners, while the prisoners became passive and depressed. Five of the prisoners began to experience such severe negative emotions, including crying and acute anxiety that they had to be released from the study early. According to Zimbardo and his colleagues, the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behaviour, Because the guards were placed in a position of power, they began to behave in ways they would not normally act in their everyday lives or in other situations. The prisoners, placed in a situation where they had no real control, became passive and depressed. This study is much like the Abu Ghraib, even though the participants of Zimbardo weren’t told to be aggressive, they took the authority power, just like the US command did in Abu Ghraib. Conformity is also another study that can be used to explain Abu Ghraib. Conformity suggests some degree of conflict between what the group demands of the individual and what the individual would otherwise do. If one participant that was chose to be a prison guard started acting aggressive towards the participants being prisoners, conformity would say that the rest of the prison guards would begin to follow that prison guard and become aggressive towards the prisoners themselves. Conformity is changing your belief or behaviour due to real or imagined group pressure and in Abu Ghraib there was real group pressure because the other prison guards were being aggressive so the rest of them though that’s what the experiment wanted them to do. Hofling’s 1966 experiment can also be a study to support what happened at Abu Ghraib. Hofling’s experiment was when Hofling chose 22 nurses from different wards and hospitals including both private and public hospitals. The aim of the experiment was to see if nurses would obey an order they thought came from a doctor, even though by obeying, nurses would be going against their training. Nurses were called by a ‘Doctor Smith’ telling them to give a patient a dose of 20mg of Astroten, even though the label on the bottle said ‘10mg daily limit’. Because the order came from a higher authority (the doctor), 21/22 nurses obeyed the order and went to give the patient double the daily amount even though 11/22 read the label. Power and perceive status may have caused high obedience, just like in Abu Ghraib when the US command sent the email to US soldiers to be aggressive towards them; the soldiers obeyed it because they were being ordered to.